Descriptive Essay about Sunset Beach - 752 Words

Ever since Sunset Beach has been officially opened to the public, there has been a drastic increase of tourists present. Television programs concluded that at least a thousand people visit the beach everyday. Reasons for their stay are that they feel comfortable with the environment that surrounds the beach front, people who are at the beach are joyous and numerous activities to enjoy, and the fresh scent of the sparkly waters, make the visitors feel calm and pleasurable. So I decided to take a trip there. As I walked down the sidewalk, my nose picked up the salty scent of the sea breeze. I looked ahead and saw the gleaming beach in the far distance. Before me, the tranquil city along with the endless blue sea sandwiched the golden beach†¦show more content†¦Every ten to fifteen steps, I stop to hear the laughter and screams of people playing by the beach. Before I took my first step on the beach, I was astounded by the countless of people present at the seaside. Everyone he ld a happy expression on their faces. The females wore swimsuits and the males wore only pants. I could see all kinds of people, from babies held in the arms to teenagers jumping with joy. Most of the people came out with blankets or towels and enjoyed the rays of the sun while laying still on them. Just before the hot sand embraced all over my feet, I went to a clear area and started building my sand castle. As for the teenagers, they chat in groups with their friends under the coconut trees. I was also under a shade of a tower which stood like a tall tree. I found people on this high platform who wore red shirts and always staring towards the sea. The length of the beach stretches until it vanishes from the lifeguard’s supervision, but there were enough room for activities to be taking place. At that time several feet beside me were grown-ups starting a game of volleyball. There was also water volleyball close to the shore, but that’s when the sun was perpendicular t o the beach and the sand is scorching. Right in front of the tower, a water motorcycle contest was taking place. On my far right were adults teaching young children about surfing. Some were demonstrating on the sand and others were demonstrating on shallow water. NumerousShow MoreRelatedMy Childhood And Teenage Years Essay2300 Words   |  10 Pageschildhood and teenage years trying to understand the nature of my parents’ relationship and marriage. They have been together for nearly thirty-one years. After being a part of their marriage for eighteen years, I began to draw my own conclusions about their relationship: it was unhealthy. Rewind back to 1984, New Year’s Eve, this marked the first time my parents ever met. My mom and her girl friends were dining at a restaurant on the Upper East Side. Coincidentally, my dad was also eating thereRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesCoaching and Counseling 244 Coaching and Counseling Problems 245 Defensiveness and Disconfirmation 246 Principles of Supportive Communication 247 Supportive Communication Is Based on Congruence, Not Incongruence 247 Supportive Communication Is Descriptive, Not Evaluative 248 Supportive Communication Is Problem-oriented, Not Person-oriented 250 Supportive Communication Validates Rather than Invalidates Individuals 251 Supportive Communication Is Specific (Useful), Not Global (Nonuseful) 253 SupportiveRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesEnvironment 22 †¢ Improving Ethical Behavior 22 Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model 23 An Overview 23 †¢ Inputs 24 †¢ Processes 25 †¢ Outcomes 25 Summary and Implications for Managers 30 S A L Self-Assessment Library How Much Do I Know About Organizational Behavior? 4 Myth or Science? â€Å"Most Acts of Workplace Bullying Are Men Attacking Women† 12 An Ethical Choice Can You Learn from Failure? 24 glOBalization! Does National Culture Affect Organizational Practices? 30 Point/Counterpoint LostRead MoreProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 Pages(alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-340334-2 (alk. paper) 1. Project management. 2. Time management. 3. Risk management. I. Gray, Clifford F. II. Gray, Clifford F. Project management. III. Title. HD69.P75G72 2011 658.4904—dc22 2009054318 www.mhhe.com About the Authors Erik W. Larson ERIK W. LARSON is professor of project management at the College of Business, Oregon State University. He teaches executive, graduate, and undergraduate courses on project management, organizational behavior, and leadership

Media Effects for Communities or Societies -MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theMedia Effects for Communities or Societies. Answer: Media effects are the social responses that individuals, communities or societies express as a result of exposure to media messages. Media messages could be articulated to result to have an intended response from the audience or sometimes the response could be unintended. This field of study developed in the early 20th century during the worldwide conflict happening at the time, and by the end of the 2nd World War, a lot of research concluded that the media had limited effects on the audience. In the late 20th century more theories on media effects suggested that the media had a massive impact on the audiences. Therefore, scholars and researchers revisited the research field to reexamine the effects of the media (Ludes, 2008). New theories were established to explain media effects on attitudes and behaviors of the audiences. Media Effects Theories Direct effects theory suggests that audiences passively accept media messages and their responses are predictable. This theory assumes that media messages produce intended responses from the audiences. According to the theory, media messages have a greater influence on the society and could challenge stabilizing factors within present in the society. This there can be used to explain the effects of propaganda messages that have caused war in different regions in the world. The application of the theory in the contemporary society is minimal as people as getting more educated, and mass media outlets have increased therefore audiences compare information in different outlets before making decisions. The Agenda-setting theory of the media suggests that mass media determine what should concern the media rather than their views by prioritizing these messages. The media pays attention to these messages while issues to increase debates on the issue within the public domain. Audiences will tend to avoid issues that affect them as the media do not consider them as pressing issues. This model shows that the media determines what the audience should talk and think about. This theory applies most in the current society as the media have become major champions for public policy formulation. Mass media promotes debates within the public which in turn increases pressure on the government to formulate policies on different issues. Uses and gratification theory states that the audience uses the media to satisfy their needs and desires which include entertainment, communication, and research. Different mass media users have different reasons and motivations for using a specific media. Different media have different roles in the society and depending on their impact and uses; users could choose them as long as they serve their needs. In the contemporary society, the causes of violent behaviors expressed by young people have been blamed on the media (Ludes, 2008). Many research conducted on violent behaviors among some youth show that they are a result of exposure to violent media. Media desensitizes people, and audiences with facing frustrating and depressing situations are vulnerable to these violent media to let out their frustrations. Symbolic interactionism theory uses the interactive aspect of humans to propagate shared symbols among the audience. The media uses this aspect to create symbols to influence existing shared symbols within the society. These symbols affect how individuals behave as the society has a major impact on how people behave. The advertising industry has capitalized on this theory to influence peoples attitudes towards products or services. Companies place a cultural aspect on products to increase their desirability for example; companies that manufacture luxury automobiles associate their products with socioeconomic class in the society as explained by Potter, W. J. (2012). The spiral of silence theory suggests that mass media influences the dominance of some opinions while blocking minority opinions from the audience. The theory suggests that the main reason for the lack of minority opinion in the public domain is the avoidance of isolation from individuals with the majority opinion. The minority opinion is silenced, and an illusion of popular opinion is created which increases pressure for these individuals to adopt the majority opinion. For example, many individuals living in radical Islamic Countries may not agree with the rules laid out by the government, but they cannot speak against it for fear of isolation and stigma they could receive from fellow countrymen and the government. Medias Negative Influence Blind Imitation Young people especially teenagers are majorly influenced by celebrities through media. They imitate what the celebrities do without giving a thought of what the consequences of their actions. Media has capitalized on controversial and wrong acts, and they have made them be blown out of proportion. At a young age, they want to look, flashy by imitating dress code and makeup and other activities that celebrities do that hit the headlines (Bryant Zillmann, 2016). Wrong Message Media constructs messages to inform, educate or warn the audiences but responses vary depending on how the individual understands the message. For example, media such as newspapers and television may provide warning messages on the negative effects addiction. These warning messages are not received in the same way thus others will take the messages in a negative way. The intent of spreading the message becomes an avenue for spreading the bad among the young people where many of them are at a stage where they experiment on anything. Some of the media content meant for entertainment such as violent movies has desensitized teenagers to have aggressive behaviors. Information Overload In this digital age, people are spending more time on media-related gadgets, for example, watching TV, surfing the Internet, reading a newspaper or listening to radio. Audiences are bombarded with information from different sources and sometimes have no time to process them and rationally make a judgment on this information (Bryant Zillmann, 2016). This information takes different forms including gossip, news, rumors, and content which may be relevant or irrelevant. Young people have become preoccupied with media content such that their social lives are no more. Media Addiction Many children across the world are spending more time on accumulating media content other than investing more time studying and engaging in outdoor activities. This led to a shift in lifestyles with obesity on the rise among the young population to unhealthy eating and spending more time indoors watching or surfing the internet. With too many media options time spent on exploring and they can take hours and more information is added to these media each day. Case Study Desensitized to Horror: Terrorism The 21st century has witnessed more horrors that have resulted from media desensitization across the globe. Mass shootings have been reported in different parts of the world and researchers have shown that the masterminds of these activities had been exposed to some form of radicalization. Some of the mass shootings related to terrorism witnessed across the world include the Orlando attack, Nice attack, Garissa University attack, Beirut attack and Bataclan attack is some of the deadly attacks that claimed several lives as noted by O'Kane, R. H. T. (2016). The world is facing more violence than it has ever witnessed since the 2nd World War. Many lives are being lost to terrorist attacks both in the West and East countries due to advancement in communication technologies. The media have aided the spread of terrorist propaganda through online forums in which they could recruit followers from different parts of the world (Townshend, 2011). Some of these attacks were homegrown, and individuals were radicalized online, for example, the Orlando Shooting was done by US citizens who had been radicalized online. Some attacks such as Garissa University attack were carried out by Al-Shabaab terrorists who have been radicalized to killing innocent lives. Radical Islam is spreading fast across the globe through the media both intentionally and unintentionally. ISIS has capitalized on media channels such as YouTube, Twitter and chat rooms in which young and disenfranchised minds are attracted by the sense of purpose that these masterminds promise them. The white supremacists on the other have an increased presence online with many some of its members such as Dylan Roof, and Elliot was radicalized and these platforms to violent actions such as mass shootings. These groups have manipulated mainstream media to spread their ideologies and initiate the public debate about their space in the society. These groups have ganged up to support narratives that support their ideologies on the media or even change intended meaning of media messages to suit what they believe is right. As suggested by the uses and gratification theory, media messages sometimes unintentionally radicalize individuals through filtering of information to suit their needs and desires. Media messages need to be carefully constructed to avoid misinterpretation to avoid fear and hate against individuals. Terrorism has heavily been linked to Islam. Therefore, moderate Muslims in the western countries are facing the consequences of the actions of the radical Muslims. There is a lot of hate and fear directed towards them because of the attacks that have been carried out in the name of their religion. Many innocent Muslims have been arrested and linked to terrorist attacks without actual evidence of their involvement. The media has helped in perpetuating this concept that all terrorists are Muslims through films and news (O'Kane, 2016). Non-Muslims have been made to understand through the media that Islam is a violent religion that believes in killing people. The media has a key role in the spread of information across the world, and due to limited media regulations, contents of all kinds reach the audience when it's still raw, and the audience are expected to process and respond to them accordingly (Townshend, 2011). The media should become responsible for messages they give to the public to ensure that negative impacts are reduced. Societies need to monitor what is being consumed through the media to ensure that morals in the society are not corrupted. Conclusion The media has the big role to play in the society; therefore, it must ensure that whatever content it gives the public must be carefully constructed to minimize negative influences it may bring to the public. Media should be regulated to reduce content that may compromise morals in the society. Parents, guardians, and teachers have a responsibility of ensuring that the content exposed to children and teenagers is monitored to reduce inappropriate content that the contemporary media offers. Governments need to initiate counter-terrorism programs to reduce the impact of growing terrorist threats across the globe. Through these programs, vulnerable youths are protected from these groups and are provided with services that keep them on track. All society members have a responsibility to reduce negative media effects on its members (Perse Lambe, 2017). References Bryant, J., Zillmann, D. (2016). Perspectives on media effects. Hillsdale, N.J: L. Erlbaum Associates. Bryant, J., Zillmann, D. (2014). Media effects: Advances in theory and research. Hillsdale, N.J: Erlbaum Burton, G. (2010). Media and Society: Critical Perspectives. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Feldstein, S. P. (2009). Terrorist ideology and the implications of radicalization. New York: Nova Science. Ludes, P. (2008). Convergence and fragmentation: Media technology and the information society. Bristol, UK: Intellect. O'Kane, R. H. T. (2016). Terrorism. Place of publication not identified: Routledge. Perse, E. M., Lambe, J. L. (2017). Media effects and society. Potter, W. J. (2012). Media effects. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Publications. Pregulman, A., Burke, E., Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.). (2012). Homegrown terrorism. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies. Serapio, M., Singroy, A., Roumeliotis, I., Koksal, N., Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. (2014). Homegrown Terrorism: September 2014. Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Townshend, C. (2011). Terrorism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Business Communication Trends free essay sample

Business Communication Trends University of Phoenix Communication is essential for life in general but in business settings, it is absolutely critical. Communication is commonly assumed to consist of Just speaking and listening and this is true in most cases. However, there are other elements that make up this seemingly simple, yet very complex process. If these other elements are not taken into consideration the ability to communicate, or transfer information from one source to another will be greatly impaired. The importance of communication to an organizations ability to perform its daily business functions cannot be veremphasized, and the effectiveness of those communications can either help bring success or lead to failure. Communication plays a much larger role in the daily activities of a business than many people realize. The manager cannot get work accomplished by his or her employees unless what needs to be done is effectively communicated, and the manager cannot properly manage if his or her subordinates arent communicating with them. We will write a custom essay sample on Business Communication Trends or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Which personnel are at work, who is working on what, estimated time of completion, and budgeting and accounting are Just a few examples of the information that communications can provide to both employees nd management. Many management problems have arisen because of misunderstandings or misrepresentations. However, with the help of effective communication, these management problems can be eliminated, or at least greatly reduced. Communication can also greatly enhance motivation and improve the morale of employees. Inappropriate or faulty communication between employees or between managers and subordinates can cause conflict and low morale in the workplace. Managers must clarify what employees are expected to do, how well they are doing, and what can be done for better performance. Effective communications an also help maintain good human relations in an organization by encouraging ideas or suggestions, and implementing them whenever possible. Communication and business communications are changing on an almost daily basis and management must adapt to these new trends in order to keep things running smoothly. Most of the biggest changes come in the form of technology changes. Advancements in technology have contributed significantly to increased productivity and cost savings. Technology has provided businesses with instant communication capabilities to Just about anywhere in the world, which makes it seem like everyone is much closer. Most employees are expected to know how to navigate on the internet, use word processing, e-mail, spreadsheets, databases, and presentation software. (Locker Kienzler, 2008, p. 4) Employees must use computers daily for clocking in, accounting of man-hours, and accessing the company intranet to retrieve information While e-mail may be appropriate for routine correspondence, more urgent matters are better handled via cellular phone or other handheld wireless devices. Increasing globalization is a trend that has also had an effect on business communications. As the business grows internationally and expands evermore into the global arketplace, the company must show commitment and responsibility to the various countries with which they have ties. Factors such as time zones, language barriers, and cultural and societal norms and expectations must be addressed. (Heiss Fraser, 2000) Another trend is the emphasis that the organization now places upon employee engagement. Successful businesses, and those who wish to become successful, are working to increase employee engagement through various methods. The extensive use of teams to help solve problems and make decisions is a big one. Allowing all employees to provide input for changes to processes or the development f new ones is another good method that is used. Employees also attend monthly meetings to review the past months data, discuss current business climate, look at the scheduled production for the upcoming months and next year, review customer issues and complaints, and any other items of concern to the managers or employees. Because the business has become more global, the use of electronic communications such as e-mail, text messages, and wireless transfer of reports, pictures, and documents is not only a convenience, but a requirement. Teleconferencing is also relied upon heavily to get groups of people together for mportant meetings, even at a moments notice, without having to resort to traveling large distances. Message types used to help employee engagement consist of e- mails, meetings, and boards that are located in the various departments that contain graphs, charts, and other information that details accomplishments and how they compare to the established goals.

Chemical Compounds Bromine essays

Chemical Compounds Bromine essays The element Bromine, is a red liquid which is explosive at room temperature and has a red brown vapour. It has an atomic number of 35 and an atomic mass of 79.909. The melting point of Bromine is -7 deg.C and the boiling point is 58 degC with a relative Bromine is a volatile dense mobile, that is a reddish brown liquid, which quickly gives a brown toxic valour with a disagreeable irritating odour. It combines directly with most elements although heat or a reactant is often neccessary to start some reactions. Hydrobomic Acid and Hypobromous Acid is a mixture that is formed when Bromine reacts with water. Oxygen is liberated by Bromine when the resulting solution is heated or exposed to strong sunlight. A solution to Bromine in water is called Bromine Water, which is used as a test reagent in organic chemistry to identify unsaturated compounds. Bromine resembles Chlorine in many of its properties, but is less active. Because of its reactivity, Bromine does not exist in the free elemental state in nature, but small quantities are combined in many silver ores. Bromine salts are found in seawater and in the salts deposits in Strassfurt. Compounds of Bromine also occurs in Bromine is used in a wide range of industries. It is used in the manufacture of 1,2-DibromoEthane, CH2BrCH2Br, which is used as a petrol additive to prevent lead being deposited in the cylinders. The manufacture of compounds used in photography and the manufacture of dyestuffs and drugs is another use of bromine. Bromine is used in the analytical laboratory in testing for unsaturation in organic compounds, where it adds across the multiple bonds of unsaturated compounds. ...

Introduction music technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Introduction music technology - Essay Example The music critics also praised the lyrics and the natural and simple tone of Adele’s voice. Adele was offered her first recording contract from XL Recording after her demo was posted online by her friend. It was immediately a year after it that Adele received the critics’ choice award at Brit Awards and she also won the award for BBC Sound of the Year. Her first debut album â€Å"19† was released in the year 2008 and it immediately turned out to be a commercial and critical success. It was declared double platinum in US and four times platinum in UK. Adele experienced a career boost after she appeared on the show â€Å"Saturday night live† in 2008. She was also awarded â€Å"The Female Pop Vocal Performance† and â€Å"The Best New Artist† at the 51st annual Grammy awards. Adele’s second album named 21 set a world record, as it sold more than 28 million copies worldwide. For the completion of the song Adele collaborated with the successful producer and musician Dan Wilson. Before her meeting with Wilson, Adele wrote the lyrics of the song. Both of them practiced and brainstormed various lyrics and melodies. The song was recorded by Adele at the Harmony Studio that is present in West Hollywood California and Dan Wilson was on the Piano during the song. At that time Phillip Allen was the recording engineer. The mixing of the song was however done by Dan Parry and Tom Elmhirst, while the mastering of the song was completed by Tom Coyne. The song has a certain history, as lyrically it speaks about the end of relationship with her log time lover. The song also shows Adele confronting his marriage. At the starting of the song Adele sings a line which indicated that her boyfriend has now settled and has married someone else, which is accompanied by simple piano melody. The lyrics of the song indicate that what once was in Adele’s life and what could have been. Dan Wilson states that when Adele first

Personal REading Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Personal REading Project - Research Paper Example Beowulf is so confident that he uses no weapon to fight with Grendel. He fights barehanded. This results into ripping of his arm. Grendel surrenders and escapes. When he returns, he dies. The king thanks Beowulf for the great work done in defeating the enemy. They take the Grendel’s arm and hang it as a sign of trophy and victory of human nature over an evil creature. The mother to Grendel is angry of her son’s death. She is enraged. She decides to come one night and starts yet another menace mission. She picks one man and eats then runs away. The mother finds the son’s arm that had been in a hall. She gets away with it. The king is upset by the invasion of Grendel’s mother. He once again calls upon Beowulf to come and assist him to destroy the mother (Classen, 2007). The king makes promises to Beowulf in order to encourage him to accomplish the task. He promised him gold, treasures, and alliance with the people of the land. Beowulf comes along with his me n and invades the residence of Grendel’s mother. Beowulf swims to where the mother lives. They start fighting. However, he is so unfortunate that he is battered by the woman. Otherwise, she tries to harm him but is unable. Beowulf realizes that the sword does very little to finish her. She makes a mistake of swimming to her battle hall where they continue to fight. He discovers a magic sword on the wall of the battle hall. He grabs the sword and slashes her head resulting into accomplishment of the task. The sword is a special weapon. It had been created by ancient monsters. Beowulf swims around and finds Grendel’s arm. He also finds his body and cuts off his head. He gets away with the head and the arm as trophies of the victory. Beowulf swims to where his men are waiting. He finds that the king’s men had already left after predicting that Beowulf had been defeated. Beowulf and his men return to Hrothgar. The king rewards him with gold. The king also

Role of Consumer Expectations in Economic Policy

Role of Consumer Expectations in Economic Policy BU/12C/BS/0403 Introduction A theme that dominates modern discussions of macro policy is the importance of expectations, and economists have devoted a great deal of thought to expectations and the economy. Change in expectations can shift the aggregate demand (AD) curve; expectations of inflation can cause inflation. For this reason expectations are central to all policy discussions, and what people believe policy will be significantly influences the effectiveness of the policy. Expectations complicate models and policymaking enormously; they change the focus of discussions from a response that can be captured by simple models to much more complicated discussions. The adaptive expectations theory assumes people form their expectations on future inflation on the basis of previous and present inflation rates and only gradually change their expectations as experience unfolds. In this theory, there is a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment which does not exist in the long-run. Any attempt to reduce the unemployment rate blow the natural rate sets in motion forces which destabilize the Phillips Curve and shift it rightward. Under adaptive expectations, forecasts of the future rate of inflation may be right on the money, but they may also exhibit systematic error. When inflation is accelerating, forecasts will tend to be too low. And when inflation is decelerating (that is, disinflation is taking place), then forecasts will tend to be too high. The Rational expectations model was developed by Robert Lucas, rational economic agents are assumed to make the best of all possible use of all publicly available information. Before reaching a conclusion, people are assumed to consider all available information before them, then make informed, rational judgments on what the future holds. This does not mean that every individual’s expectations or predictions about the future will be correct. Those errors that do occur will be randomly distributed, such that the expectations of large numbers of people will average out to be correct. To illustrate, assume the economy has been in an equilibrium state for several years with low inflation and low unemployment. In such a stable environment, the average person would expect the inflation rate to stay where it is indefinitely. But now assume the Central Bank announces it is going to significantly increase the rate of growth of the money supply. Basic economic theory tells us an increase in the money supply will translate into higher prices, such that increasing the annual rate of growth of the money supply should bring about higher inflation rates. Knowing this, consumers will revise their inflationary expectations upward. As this simple example shows, people do not rely only on past experiences to formulate their expectations of the future, as adaptive expectations theory suggests. Rather people use all information available to them in judging what the future will hold. This information can include past data, but it will also include current policy announcements and all other information that give them reason to believe that the future might hold certain changes. If the adaptive expectations are backward looking the rational expectations are forward looking , in that they assume people will use all of the information available to them. Expectations of inflation Some workers may feel cheated by inflation. They might believe that without it, they would experience real-wage increases because their nominal wages are rising 5% a year. Unfortunately, they are wrong. They suffer what some economists call money illusion, a confusion of real and nominal weight. The source of the illusion is as thus; considering real wages are constant, the rise of their nominal wages by 5% is only as a result of the general 5% inflation. Assuming no inflation took place, there will be no increase in their nominal wages. After a time, everyone in the economy will begin to expect that the 5% annual inflation that ensued in the past would continue in the future. Economists refer to this as expectations of inflation. People’s expectations of inflation influences all facets of economic life. For example, in the steady-state economy described previously, textile producers will look forward to increasing the price of their products by 5% for the coming years. They will also expect their costs of steel and labor, for example, to increase the same way. Workers will begin to believe that the increase in their wages will be matched by the same increase in the prices of goods they buy. Also, wages are influenced by expectations. Suppose, for example, that both employers and employees expect 4% inflation in the year coming. Workers will start negotiations from a base of a 4% increase in money wages, which would hold their real wages constant. Firms also may be inclined to begin bargaining by yielding to increase at least 4% in money wages relative to productivity, because they expect that the prices at which they sell their products will rise by 4%. Starting from that base, workers will attempt to obtain some desired increase in their real wages. At this point, such factors as profits and bargaining power become important. The general expectation of some specific inflation rate creates pressure for wages to rise by that rate relative to productivity and, thus, the rise of unit cost at that rate. Inflation expectations and Interest rates When the public expects inflation, real and nominal rates of interest will differ because inflation needs to be accounted for in calculating the real return from lending and borrowing. Have in mind that the nominal interest rate is equal to the real interest rate plus expected inflation rate. If real rate of interest is 2% and inflation is 5% a year, the nominal rate is 7%. Although lenders receive 7% a year on their loans, their real return after inflation rate is just 2%. We know that in the long run the real interest rate does not bank on monetary policy because money is neutral; i.e. the price level is affected by the money supply. However, the nominal rates of interest do bank on monetary policy because the policy influences the rate of inflation, which in the long run is bent on the growth of the money supply. It has been pointed out that countries with greater money growth naturally have higher nominal interest rates than countries with lower money growth rates because they have higher inflation. What this means is that country A and B have the same real rate of interest, but country A has a higher inflation rate, it will also have a higher nominal interest rate. Inflation expectations and money demand The amount of money people want to hold will also be affected by expectations about inflation. If the public expects a 5% inflation a year, then its demand for money will also increase by 5% a year. This is because people know everything will cost 5% more, so they’ll need more money in their possession to pay for the same goods and services. This is an example of the real-nominal principle: As long as the government allows the increase in the supply of money by 5% , the same amount as inflation, the demand for money and supply are both growing at the same rate, real and nominal interest rates will not change. Effects of expectations on changes in future income Todays consumption decisions may depend not only on current income, but also  on the income that one expects to earn in the future. For example, an individual  who is currently not employed but who has a contract to begin a high-paying job  in three months will probably consume more today than another unemployed  individual with no job prospects. To illustrate the effect of changes in expected future income, suppose that  instead of receiving the $6000 bonus during the current year, a consumer learns that  she will receive a $6000 bonus (after taxes) next year. The promise of the bonus is  legally binding, and said consumer has no doubt that extra income will be received  next year. How will this information affect the consumer’s consumption and saving in  the current year? Because current income is unaffected, the consumer could leave her current  consumption and saving unchanged, waiting until the bonus is actually received  to increase her consumption. If her decisions are guided by a consumption-smoothing motive, however, she will prefer to use the bonus to increase her current consumption  as well as her future consumption. She can increase her current consumption, despite the fact that her current income remains unchanged, by reducing her current saving (she could even dissave, or have negative cu rrent saving, with current consumption exceeding current income, by using her accumulated assets or by borrowing). Suppose, for example, that consumer decides to consume $1000 more this year. Because current income is unchanged, the $1000 increase in current consumption is equivalent to a $1000 reduction in current saving. The $ 1000 reduction in current saving will reduce the available resources in the next year, relative to the situation in which her saving is unchanged, by $ 1000 X (1 + r) . For example, if the real interest rate is 0.05, cutting current saving by $1000 reduces the available resources next year by $1000 X 1 .05 == $1050. Overall, her available resources next year will increase by $6000 because of the bonus but will decrease by $1050 because of reduced current saving, giving a net increase in resources of $6000 $1050 == $4950, which can be used to increase consumption next year or in the following years. Effectively, the consumer can use the increase in her expec ted future income to increase consumption both in the present and in the future. To summarize, an increase in an individuals expected future income is likely to lead that person to increase current consumption and decrease current saving. The same result applies at the macroeconomic level: If people expect that aggregate output and income, Y, will be higher in the future, current desired consumption, cd, should increase and current desired national saving, sd, should decrease. Economists cant measure expected future income directly, so how do they  take this variable into account when predicting consumption and saving behavior? One approach is to survey consumers and ask them about their expectations. Their  answers can be useful for assessing developments in the macroeconomy.   In conclusion, The central role of expectations means that there is a great deal of uncertainty in the economy. Put simply: What people believe plays a central role in how they react to policy. Expectations can change the effect of a policy. Most discussion of policy today assumes that people are forward looking, that they think strategically, and that they base their actions on expected policy actions. Thus in some way their expectations are rational. But modern policy discussion is also built on the belief that the economy is complicated and that many possible expectations are rational. This includes adaptive expectations and combinations of expectations strategies. What the above assumptions mean in terms of policy is that depending on the beliefs that individuals hold, monetary and fiscal policy will work in different ways. People aren’t stupid and they aren’t super intelligent; they are people. If the government uses an activist monetary and fiscal policy in a predictable way, people will eventually come to build that expectation into their behavior. If the government bases its prediction of the effect of policy on past experience, that prediction will likely be wrong. But government never knows when expectations will change. Let’s consider an example. Say that everyone expects government to run expansionary fiscal policy if the economy is in recession. In the absence of any expected policy response from the government, people will lower their prices when they see a recession coming. Expecting government expansionary policy, however they won’t lower their price. Thus, the expectation of policy can create its own problems. References: Advanced Macro Economics, Romer, 2011; Slavin S., Macro Economics, 2009; A Century of Economic Theory. Mankiw, Mcroeconomics, Aggregate Supply and the Short-Run Tradeoff Between Inflation and Unemployment: Business Cycle Theory: The Economy in the Short Run   Rittenberg Tregarthen Micheal Rousakis, uni of warwick, economics and fluctuations: the role of monetary policy, 2012 Froyen, Macroeconomics Weil, Economic Growth